Manners, Customs, and Observances: Their Origin and Significance

Manners, Customs, and Observances: Their Origin and Significance
by Leopold Wagner

Scanned and proofed by Eliza Yetter at sacredspiral.com, July 2005. This text is in the public domain in the US and most countries.

PREFACE

ALL that need be said by way of preface to the following pages, is to lay stress upon the great pains which have been taken to ensure accuracy. The innumerable books consulted to this end have not involved half so much time and patience as the journeys undertaken for the purpose of interviewing those who, owing to their official position, or for any other reason, could be relied upon to impart information at first hand. In short, recourse has been had to books only where no living authority was available. By such means, many apocryphal stories have been avoided or explained away.

In a work of this nature, ingenious theories and plausible explanations should find no place. Still less should generally accepted statements be complacently set down without inquiry. Of curious and out-of-the-way information there is in these days assuredly no lack. One can rarely take up a periodical without meeting with something new and strange of archaeological interest. But, for the very reason that it is found where it is, it lays itself open to qualification. In another place the self-same subject may be presented in a totally different light. This is because ordinarily accessible information, such as is every day drawn upon by pressmen and magazine writers, is to a great extent conflicting and unreliable. Antiquaries are never so much at variance as when they are striving to make a very simple matter appear abstruse. Even grave historians will often be found romancing instead of adhering to sober fact.

Take, as a solitary example, the ceremony of Kissing the Pope's Foot; or, as the vulgar will have it, the Pope's Toe. According to Matthew of Westminster this originated in an expedient of one of the Popes during the eighth century. Previous to his time, we are informed, it had always been the custom for the faithful to kiss the Pope's right hand; but on one occasion a woman clutched the hand of his Holiness with such fervour, that, foreseeing the danger to which he might be exposed, he deliberately cut it off, and was thereafter obliged to offer his foot. This story is as preposterous as it is unauthenticated.

The most diligent search through the lives of the Popes has failed to elicit any information of the kind. But one need not take the trouble to wade through the history of the Church in order to be able to give the lie direct to such an unfounded assertion. There is not a Roman Catholic in the land, but who knows that a maimed priest could not on any account be allowed to exercise his sacerdotal functions. Yet this ridiculous story is repeated in most of the so-called books of reference which nowadays adorn our library shelves. It matters not upon what respectable authority such statements are put forth; if they cannot bear the test of studious inquiry, they should be rejected in toto.

It only remains to express indebtedness to many learned and influential gentlemen whose valuable time and generous assistance have been so largely laid under contribution for this work; notably, to M. S. S. Dipnall, Esq., late Secretary of Christ's Hospital, for some authentic particulars concerning the Blue-coat boys' costume; and to Louis B. Abrahams, Esq., B.A., author of "A Manual of Jewish History," for much of the material drawn upon in the Jewish section of this work.

L. W.

LONDON, 1894.

REGAL AND ECCLESIASTICAL.

1. Heraldry, Heralds' College, Lyon King-at-Arms, Norroy, Clarencieux, Coats of Arms, Supporters, Mottoes, Emblems. | 2. The Royal Arms of Great Britain: the Three Lions of England, the Lion of Scotland, the Harp of Ireland; the Rose, Thistle, Shamrock, and Leek; "Dieu et Mon Droit," "Honi Soit Qui Mal y Pense;" the Lion and Unicorn. | 3. The Plume of Ostrich Feathers, "Ich Dien.". | 4. The Fleur-de-Lis. | 5. Red the Royal Colour of England. | 6. The Royal Champion. | 7. The Orb and Sceptre. | 8. Touching for the King's Evil. | 9. Patriarchs, the Monarchical System of Government. | 10. Eastern Monarchs. | 11. The Hanging Gardens of Babylon. | 12. The Bull in Pagan Worship. | 13. Prohibited Foods. | 14. Mohammedan Women not considered Soulless Creatures. | 15. The Fast of Ramadan. | 16. The Sabbath: Jewish, Christian, and Mohammedan. | 17 Tithes. | 18. Roman Catholic Ritual: the Altar, Corporal, Candles, Crucifix, Chalice, Patten, Vestments, Amice, Maniple, Stole, Girdle, Chasuble. Colour of the Vestments: Red, Purple, White, Black, Green. | 19. Incense. | 20. Holy Water. | 21. Why the Mass is said in Latin. | 22. The Nimbus, or "Glory" in Christian Art. | 23. Placing the Altar at the East End of Churches. | 24. The Papal Tiara. | 25. The Bishop's Mitre. | 26. The Crosier and Crook. | 27. The Tonsure. | 28. Signet Rings. | 29. Why the Pope takes a New Name on Election. | 30. Why Cardinals Wear Red Hats. | 31. The Franciscans no longer the Grey Friars. | 32. The Servites. | 33. The Little Sisters of the Poor. | 34. Taking the Veil. | 35. Bell, Book, and Candle employed for Excommunication.

NAVAL AND MILITARY.

36. | Flags and Banners, Ensigns and Standards, the Roman Eagle, the Two-headed Eagle, the Dragon, the Crescent, the Red Flag, the Flag of Truce, the Roman S. P. Q. R. Banner. | 37. The Royal Standard of Great Britain, the Union Jack, Derivation of the term "Jack.". | 38. The Tricolour. | 39. The Stars and Stripes. | 40. The Broom tied to the Masthead, the Pennant. | 41. The Fleur-de-Lis on the Mariner's Compass. | 42. Three Men always stationed on a British Lighthouse. . | 43. "Crossing the Line.". | 44. "Ahoy!". | 45. "Heave-oh!". | 46. The Scarab engraved on Rings worn by Egyptian Soldiers. | 47. Military Observances: Firing a Salute, Presenting Arms, Lowering Swords, Surrendering the Sword. | 48. Origin of the Military Salute. | 49. Trooping of the Colours. | 50. The Military Nickname "Lobsters.". | 51. The Word "Lieutenant.". | 52. Hussar Uniforms: the Right Sleeve of the Outer Tunic not used, the Scarlet Cloth on the Busby. | 53. The Broad Arrow. | 54. The Left Hand the Military Place of Honour in Turkey, Why we are Right-handed.

LEGAL AND PARLIAMENTARY.

CIVIC AND SOCIAL.

COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE.

170. Plighting Troths. | 171. The Gimmal Ring, the Broken Coin, the Bent Coin, Why a Coin with a Hole in it is Lucky. | 172. A Lock of Hair. | 173. Lovers Sitting at their Mistress's Feet. | 174. Espousals or Solemn Betrothals in Church, the Nuptial Kiss at the Altar, "Pledging" in a Cup of Wine. | 175. Marriage by Capture, Why Female Infants are Sacrificed by Barbarous Tribes, Marriage by Purchase, "Giving Away the Bride.". | 176. Wedding Presents, a Knife or Pair of Scissors considered an Unlucky Present. . | 177. The Wedding-Ring, the Bracelet. | 178. The Wedding-Ring Finger, the Medicated Finger. . | 179. The Best Man. | 180. Bridesmaids and Groomsmen. | 181. Origin of the Clergyman claiming to Kiss the Bride. | 182. Publication of Banns. | 183. Orange Blossoms. | 184. The Bride's Wreath, the Coronet. | 185. The Bride's Veil. | 186. Marriage in the Church Porch. | 187. The Wedding Breakfast. | 188. The Wedding Cake. | 189. The "Marriage in Chemise.". | 190. Tying the Nuptial Knot. | 191. The Breaking of the Wine-Cup. | 192. Scattering Nuts at a Roman Wedding, Sacrificing her Trinkets by a Japanese Bride. | 193. Lifting the Bride over the Doorstep. | 194. Unpopular and Ill-assorted Marriages. | 195. Rice Throwing. | 196. Throwing the Shoe after the Bride and Bridegroom. | 197. The Honeymoon. | 198. The Wife's Pin-Money. | 199. The Dunmow Flitch of Bacon Custom.

DEATH AND BURIAL.

200. The Death Rattle. | 201. The Flag Half-Mast High. | 202. Tolling the Church Bells, the Passing Bell. | 203. The Judge's Black Cap. | 204. The Black Flag. | 205. A Military Funeral. | 206. The Mourning Colours of Nations: Black, White, Black and White Striped, Pale Brown, Greyish Brown, Sky-Blue, Purple. | 207. Mourning Hat-Bands. | 208. Widows' Caps. | 209. The Piece of Crape on the Sleeve. | 210. White Gloves for the Undertaker's Men. | 211. Undertakers' Mutes. | 212. Pall-Bearers. | 213. Throwing a Handful of Earth on the Coffin. | 214. Funeral Feasts, Viewing the Body at an Inquest. | 215. Burial at the Cross Roads, the word "Funeral.". | 216. The Skull and Cross-bones in City Graveyards. | 217. The Yew and Weeping Willow. | 218. Monumental and Sepulchral Effigies: Saints and Martyrs, Holy Men, Founders of Chapels, Cross-legged Figures, Recumbent and Kneeling Figures, Husband and Wife, a Lion at the Feet, a Dog at the Feet, Kneeling Boys. | 219. "Stop, Traveller! ". | 220. Jewish Burial Customs. | 221. The Towers of Silence. | 222. Embalming the Dead Body. | 223. The Pyramids of Egypt. | 224. The Catacombs of Rome.

AMUSEMENTS OF THE PEOPLE.

225. Origin of the Drama: Tragedy, Comedy. | 226. Pantomine, Ballet d'Action. | 227. The Italian Comedy, the Four Masks: Harlequin, Pantaloon, Brighella, or Clown, the Doctor, Why Harlequin Does not Speak, Topical Allusions. | 228. The Dress and Painted Face of the Pantomime Clown, the Pantaloon's Dress, Harlequin's particoloured Dress, Black Mask and Wooden Bat. | 229. The Pantomime "Opening," the Court Masques, the Puppet-shows, the Fairy Stories upon which Modern Pantomimes are founded, the Dark Scene, the Fairies and Demons. | 230. Transformation Scenes. | 231. The Opera, the First English Opera. . | 232. The Concert, the First English Concert. | 233. Origin of Music Halls and Variety Entertainments. | 234. The Court Fools and Jesters, Circus Clowns. | 235. Origin of the Christy Minstrel Entertainment, a Secondary Object in the Use of Burnt Cork. | 236. Playing the Audience Out with "God Save the Queen.". | 237. Why Women do not Applaud. | 238. Equestrian Artistes Kissing the Hand to the Audience. | 239. Why Musical Instruments are always Tuned up in the Orchestra. | 240. Modern Theatre Construction. | 241. Origin of the Panorama. | 242. The Waxwork Show, "the Ragged Regiment" in Westminster Abbey, Origin of Madame Tussaud's Exhibition, the Chamber of Horrors. | 243. Fairs and Wakes. | 244. Origin of the Colours in the University Boat-race. | 245. Why Eastern Shepherds Play on the Pipes. | 246. Origin of Playing Cards: the Kings, Queens, Knaves, Hearts, Spades, Diamonds, and Clubs. | 247. Chess. 248. Dominoes. | 249. Marbles. | 250. Quoits. | 251. Cock-fighting.

PATRON SAINTS AND THEIR ATTRIBUTES.

FESTIVALS OF THE CHURCH.

JEWISH FEASTS AND FESTIVALS.

396. Religious Unanimity of the Jewish People in all Lands. | 397. The Festival of Pesach or Passover, the Feast of Unleavened Bread, the Eve of Searching for Leaven, Passover Bread, the Fast of the First-Born, Signification of the Articles Set upon the Family Table, the Counting of the Omer. | 398. The Fasts of lyar, the Second Passover, the Scholars' Feast. | 399. The Festival of Shovuos or Pentecost, the Time of Giving the Law, the Feast of Weeks, the Day of First Ripe Fruits, or the Harvest Festival in the East, the Three Days of Setting Bounds. | 400. The Black Fast, or Fast of Tammuz. | 401. The Fast of Av. | 402. Alul, the Month of Warning. | 403. The Festival of the New Year, or the Head of the Year, the Day of Memorial, the Day of Judgment, the Day of Sounding the Horn, the Days of Awe, or Ten Days of Repentance, the Fast of Gedaliah, the Sabbath of Repentance, the White Fast, or Day of Atonement, the Feast of Succous, or Tabernacles, the Great Hosanna, the Eighth Day of Solemn Assembly, the Rejoicing of the Law. | 404. The Fast of Cheshvan, or Marcheshvan. | 405. The Festival of Chanukah, or Dedication. | 406. The Fast of Ti vise. | 407. The New Year Festival for the Trees, the Day of the Section of the Shekels. | 408. The Fast of Esther, the Festival of Purim, the Purim of Shushan, the Sabbath of Repentance, the Sabbath of the Month.

SECULAR OBSERVANCES.

Dog Whipping at Hull. | 455. The Shoemakers' Holiday on St. Crispin's Day. | 456. Hallowe'en, or Crack-nut Night. | 457. Guy Fawkes' Day, Origin of the name Parliament Hill. | 458. The Lord Mayor's Show, Who and What the Lord Mayor of London really is. | 459. The Stamford Bull Running. | 460. Almanack Day at Stationers' Hall. | 461. St. Andrew's Day. | 462. St. Nicholas' Day, the Boy-Bishop, the Eton Montem, Salting in a Freshman. | 463. St. Thomas's Day, the Vessel Cup. | 464. Christmas: the Church Decorations, the Mistletoe, Kissing under the Mistletoe. | 465. The Yule Log. | 466. Bringing in the Boar's Head at Queen's College, Oxford. | 467. The Christmas Mummeries, the Roman Saturnalia, the Feast of Fools, the Court Masques. | 468. Christmas Boxes, Boxing Day, "Kriss Kringle," Santa Klaus, "Knecht Rupert," Father Christmas. | 469. The Christmas Waits, Christmas Carols, Carol Singing in Holland on Christmas Morning. | 470. Christmas Trees. | 471. Christmas Candles. | 472. The Roast Beef, Christmas Pudding, and Mince Pies. | 473. The Pantomime on Boxing Day. | 474. Innocents' Day. | 475. Superstition concerning the Christmas Holly on New Year's Eve.

REGAL AND ECCLESIASTICAL

1. Heraldry is in all respects a complicated science; only those who are officially connected with that sombre looking building known as Heralds' College, in Queen Victoria Street, or who have made armorial bearings their special study, can be expected to boast of something more than a superficial acquaintance with a subject so vast. Nevertheless, a few broad principles may be here laid down with advantage. It was Charlemagne who introduced heraldic devices--which had their origin in the military standards and symbolical marks of distinction on the bucklers of barbarian nations--into the Western World (see 36). Up to the time of the Crusades, however, such devices were strictly confined to rulers and princes.

During the Crusades, when each and every knight had his face, in common with the rest of his body, encased in armour, the necessity for some means whereby one knight could be distinguished from another early suggested itself. To engrave his name upon his shield would have been useless, for in those days very few people could read. On the other hand, everyone could distinguish an animal from a bird, and although several knights might make a choice of the same animal or bird, there were a multitude of ways by which confusion was to be avoided. Each knight, accordingly, chose his own device, with the exception of a lion, which from being the king of beasts, and therefore regarded as the emblem of sovereign power, was appropriated by royal personages. When, for example, Richard I. returned from the Holy Land, he bore a crowned lion on the crest of his helmet, and three golden lions on his shield. For greater distinction our kings at a later date wore their crowns on their helmets in the battle-field, and earls and dukes their coronets.

At the battle of Agincourt, the Duke of Alençon hewed off with one stroke of his sword part of the crown worn by King Henry V. Again, after the death of Richard III. on Bosworth Field, his crown was picked up out of a hawthorn bush by a soldier, who brought it to Lord Stanley; in memory of which incident Henry VII. chose a hawthorn bush and a crown above it for his own cognizance. Ordinary knights displayed their chosen devices on their helmets and shields; and as it was considered a great honour to have been a Crusader, the same devices were borne by their descendants, both in peace and war. Such was the origin of armorial bearings, or Coats of Arms as they were called, from being embroidered on the rich coats worn over their armour in the field, and upon their ordinary garments at home. When they appeared with their vizors down at tournaments, a herald sounded his trumpet and announced the name, family, and rank, as revealed by the devices upon the shield and horse-furniture, of each. At a subsequent period these devices became so complicated, owing to the union and "impalement" of the armorial bearings of different families, that it was found necessary to register and place them under official control. In this way Heralds' College was called into existence.

The chief representative of the college in Scotland received the name of the Lyon King at Arms, from the lion rampant on the escutcheon of the Scottish kings; that of the English provinces north of the river Trent Norroy, literally north king; and that of the corresponding district south, at first Surroy, but at a later date Clarencieux, from the nomination of the Duke of Clarence to this office by his brother, Henry V. A very short period elapsed before the heralds overcame the difficulties presented by an over-blazoned shield, by means of an abridgment in the form of a crest and motto.

The earliest Mottoes were invariably the battle-cry or parole in some memorable engagement; but as time wore on imagination was called into play to devise mottoes of an original character. The idea of Supporters of the Family Arms was derived from the pages or esquires who bore the banner of a knight in the field; and, generally speaking, these supporters were an imitation of the beasts represented in the arms themselves. What are known as Emblems in armorial bearings were originally the devices displayed on the livery or worn as badges on the arms of servants and retainers of the nobility. Even tradesmen who had the privilege of supplying goods or provisions to a nobleman were expected to wear his livery and display his badge in mediaeval times. From this custom the assumption of the royal arms on his shop-front by a highly-favoured tradesman took its rise.

2 The Royal Arms of Great Britain are familiar to everyone, yet those who understand the signification of their component parts are few. The Three Golden Lions on a red field in the first quarter are described in heraldic parlance as "gules, three lions passant gardant in pale or," i.e., gules, from the French gueles, the red colour of the throat, and the Latin gula, a reddened skin; passant gardant, walking with the face looking sidewise; in pale, impaled with the arms of Scotland in the second quarter; or, from the Latin aurum, gold. Rulers and princes always chose gules for their royal colour in ancient times, because it was looked upon as the symbol of valour.

Scarlet is still the royal livery of England (see 5, 30). William the Conqueror and his successors had only two lions for their royal arms; these were derived from Rollo, Duke of Normandy, who bore the first in respect of his own province, and the second of that of Maine, after it was added to Normandy. The third lion was assumed by Henry II. in right of his queen, Eleanor, daughter of the Duke of Aquitaine. The Lion Rampant in the second quarter was the ensign of the Scottish kings from the reign of William the Lion--who received his surname on its account--down to the union of the two kingdoms in the person of our James I.; just as the Harp in the third quarter was that of the early kings of Ireland, having originally been adopted in compliment to their native bards. Gallant little Wales has never been represented in the British royal arms, obviously because it has never had any arms of its own; all it can boast of is an emblem, that of the Leek (see 421.).

Of the other national emblems which have been accorded positions in association with the royal arms, the Rose of England is the least time-honoured. Perhaps, however, it is invested with a more interesting story than all the rest, since it has entered so largely into the party strife of our country. To go back to the beginning, the red rose was the badge of John of Gaunt, the first Duke of Lancaster, and the white rose that of his brother Edward of Langley, the first Duke of York. The story of the "Wars of the Roses" forms one of the most exciting chapters in English history. Not less than thirty sanguinary battles were fought during this protracted struggle, nor was it until the union of the roses was effected by the marriage of Henry VII. with Elizabeth of York that peace once more reigned in the land. Ever since that date the rose has maintained its position as our national emblem.

The Thistle of Scotland commemorates an incident whereby the Scots were saved from being surprised in a night attack. During that early period of their history, when their coasts were liable to frequent incursions by the Danes, it chanced that, although those piratical marauders considered it cowardly to attack an enemy under cover of night, they, finding the probabilities of success all in their favour, resorted to this expedient on one memorable occasion. With bared feet and noiseless steps they stole upon the Scots unobserved, until suddenly one of them planted his foot upon a thistle, which caused him to howl with pain. The alarm being thus given, the Scots fell upon the attacking party with such success that they put them to the rout with great slaughter. The Shamrock of Ireland is intimately associated with the life of St. Patrick (see 422). It may be mentioned that the trefoil finds a place not only in the royal arms, but also in the crown of the British sovereign, because it is emblematical of the three kingdoms in one.

The motto, DIEU ET MON DROIT ("God and my right "), was the parole pf the day given by Richard I. to his army at the battle of Gisors, in which the French were signally defeated; while that inscribed on the band or garter surrounding the royal arms, HONI SOIT QUI MAL Y PENSE ("Evil be to him who evil thinks"), forms the motto of the Order of the Garter instituted by Edward III.

The Lion and Unicorn as supporters (see 1) are those of the royal arms of England and Scotland respectively; the latter was introduced when James VI. of Scotland became also James I. of England in the year 1603.

3. The Plume of Ostrich Feathers, and the motto ICH DIEN, were found on the helmet of the blind King of Bohemia after he was slain at the battle of Crecy, while serving as a volunteer in the army of the King of France, August 26th, 1346. In commemoration of his signal victory on this day, though the English forces were nominally commanded by his father, Edward III., Edward the Black Prince adopted the plume and motto for his crest, and as such they have been borne by the Prince of Wales ever since.

4The Fleur-de-Lis, which was the royal insignia of France until the Revolution of 1789, was chosen by Louis VII. as his emblem when, in conjunction with Conrad II. of Germany, he formed the Second Crusade. It has been stated that the fleur-de-lis received its name from the river Lis, which separated France and Artois from Flanders. By the marriage of Philip Augustus to the daughter of the Count of Flanders in the year 1191, Artois was united to the French crown; but as the Second Crusade was undertaken in 1147, the flower had already been accepted as the national emblem when the union took place (see 41).

5 Red is the Royal Colour of England. It was originally the distinctive livery of all Christian princes, but since it happens that red is also the colour of the field of the armorial bearings of England, other European sovereigns have thought fit to take their royal colour from the field of their respective arms. The English royal colour is well to the fore at Court, and on all occasions of State ceremonial. The throne, the woolsack, the seats of the peers, and the decorations generally in the Upper House of Legislature, are red. The Lord Mayor of London and the judges, as representatives of the Sovereign in the criminal courts, wear robes of scarlet. The royal livery has from the first been red, faced with gold. When Henry VIII. established a body-guard of fifty men, he put them into scarlet uniforms with gold facings.

The cavalry of Elizabeth's reign were ordered to wear scarlet cloaks, similar to nobles and courtiers. Red is still the predominant colour in the British army. Huntsmen following the hounds also wear red coats, in accordance with the mandate of Henry II. enjoining all who engaged in fox. hunting to wear the royal livery, because it was a royal sport. Red, too, is the distinguishing Post Office colour; the wall and pillar-boxes, the royal mail carts, and the facings of the letter-carriers, are all red. Formerly the "twopenny postman," and the drivers of the mail-coaches wore red coats. When we reflect that the Post Office grew out of a system of royal couriers established by Richard III. for the rapid transmission of intelligence during the Scottish campaign of 1482-3, the adoption of the royal colour in the British postal service will be at once understood (see 2, 30).

6. An undoubted relic of feudal times in our own age is the custom of the Royal Champion throwing down his gauntlet as a challenge to any person who dares dispute the right to the crown of the new sovereign at a coronation. A mere formal ceremony in these days, it was a matter of necessity in those troublesome times when the title to the crown was so far from secure that every sovereign required a valiant knight, renowned for deeds of arms, to assert and vindicate his just claims to it. In the event of the challenge leing taken up by another valiant knight on behalf of a rival claimant, it fell to the lot of these two knights to fight a duel to the death, on an open field or champ-hence the term, "champion." As is well known, the Dymocks have held their estates ever since the year 1377 on condition of their providing a Royal Champion to ride into Westminster Hall at every English coronation (see 73).

7. The Orb and Sceptre, as the symbols of sovereignty, are very ancient. The orb, surmounted by an eagle and placed in the hand of a Roman emperor, typified dominion over all the known world, but after the accession of Constantine the Great the bird gave place to a cross. The sceptre was originally the spear upon which a king leaned for support, and at a later period a staff or wand of office. In a MS. of the Cottonian Library we find the king represented as presiding over his Witenagemote with a sword in his right hand and a long staff surmounted by a cross in his left.

8. We have it on the authority of honest old Stow that what was known as Touching for the King's Evil originated in the dream of a young woman sorely afflicted with a scrofulous disease, that she could be cured by the simple operation of having the part washed by the king. So great was her faith in this remedy that her relatives at last made application to Edward I. on her behalf, with the result that that monarch at once consented to perform the disagreeable duty. After ordering a basin of water to be brought, he carefully softened the tumours until the skin broke and their contents were discharged.

Then the sign of the cross was made and the patient retired, fully assured of her cure, which was effected within a week. How the disease came to be called the "King's Evil" is not quite clear, because neither Edward I. nor any of his predecessors are known to have been attacked by it. Nevertheless, from the time of the young woman's dream until the middle of the eighteenth century, the popular belief that the mere touch of the reigning sovereign would effectually cure a scrofulous patient was very deep-rooted. Dr. Johnson was touched for the King's Evil by Queen Anne in the year 1712.

9. In a primitive state of society, when the population of the earth was small, each individual family was governed by its own head or chief, called a Patriarch, but subsequently, when a diversity of interests arose, and the necessity for providing for their common safety became paramount, these patriarchs made a choice of one person--"the bravest and best," as Carlyle would have put it,--and invested him with the proper authority for discharging so important a trust. Such was the origin of the Monarchical System of Government.

For let it be remembered that the earliest kings and rulers exercised jurisdiction over a particular city or tribe only. In Genesis mention is made of the kings of Sodom and Gomorrah, of Gerara and Salem, of Sennaar or Chaldea, and of the Elamites or Persians. How well this system of local government has stood the test of time is evidenced by the existence of practically the same kind of thing at the present day: the mayor corresponds to the king and the aldermen to the patriarchs.

10. The indolent despotism which has for so many centuries distinguished the rule of an Eastern Monarch was inaugurated by Ninius, the son of Ninus and Semiramis, who shut himself up with his wives in his palace at Nineveh, and entrusted the management of the State, as well as the preservation of the integrity of the Empire, to the vast armies he had levied, and to the military commanders he had bound over to him by oaths of allegiance. Ever since his time an Eastern potentate has generally considered his person as too sacred a thing to be gazed upon by the people.

11. The celebrated Hanging Gardens of Babylon were constructed by King Nebuchadnezzar for the gratification of his wife, who was a princess of Media, and who wished to see in the plains of Babylon something to remind her of the woods of her native land.

12. One reason why the Bull entered so conspicuously into the religious rites and sacrifices of the nations of antiquity was because the Egyptians believed that Osiris, the greatest of all their gods, dwelt in their midst in the form of a pure white bull with a black forehead having a square of white in the centre. When such a one was found it was held sacred during life and worshipped after death. A pure white bull is still held sacred among the Hindoos, while the Druids always sacrificed two white bulls when the sacred mistletoe was cut, at their annual festival of the winter solstice, on the 21st of December (see 464).

13. Among Prohibited Foods on religious grounds, pigeons and pork are the most noticeable. The orthodox Russian never eats the former, on account of the sanctity conferred upon the dove in both the Old and the New Testaments; the Jew refuses the latter, because the swine, which wallows in filth, is an emblem of impurity. The ancient Egyptians never touched animal food, consequent upon their belief in the doctrine of the transmigration of souls (see 222).

14. It has been asserted over and over again that the Mohammedans Regard All Women As Soulless Creatures, little removed from the brute species; and that, not expecting to participate in the joys of heaven, Mohammedan women never frequent the mosques for prayer. This monstrous imputation is very ably refuted by George Sale in the preliminary discourse to his verbatim translation of the Koran. Let it suffice to state here that the wives of Mohammedans can and do visit the mosques for devotional purposes; but it must be at a time when the men are not there, because the Moslems are of opinion that the mingling of the sexes is antagonistic to the spirit of true devotion. With regard to those females who are perpetually confined in the harems, the majority of them are not Mohammedans at all: as for the rest, they are free to perform their devotions in private.

15. One of the most rigid penances enjoined upon a religious community in any part of the world is the Mohammedan Fast of Ramadân. From the first appearance of the new moon of Ramadân, literally, "the hot month," until that of the next new moon, all Mohammedans are prohibited from eating, drinking, smoking, bathing, or the indulgence of sexual intercourse between daybreak and sunset throughout the whole thirty days. Those who, by reason of sickness, or being on a journey, are prevented from keeping the fast in its proper season, are commanded to fast a like number of days on the first opportunity ensuing.

The usual explanation of this fast, as tendered to Christian travellers, is that Mohammed fasted one day in Ramadân, but as the theologians were at variance as to the exact day, they resolved to impose the fast during the whole month, in order to make sure of it. This is a myth. The truth of the whole matter is very clearly set forth in the second chapter of the Koran, as follows:--" The month of Ramadân shall ye fast, in which the Koran was sent from Heaven, a direction unto men, and declarations of direction, and the distinction between good and evil."

16. The Christian Sabbath differs from that of the Jews because it was on the first day of the week that our Lord manifested Himself to His apostles after His resurrection, and also sent down the Holy Spirit upon them in the form of fiery tongues. Moreover, the apostles determined, at the very outset of their divine mission, that the day set apart to the particular service of the Lord should not be the Sabbath day of the Jews. Hence the Christian Sabbath is "The Lord's Day," rather than "Sunday," which term is a relic of paganism, denoting the day appointed by the pagan Saxons for the worship of the sun. The Mohammedan Sabbath is Friday, in accordance with the belief that on this day God completed the work of creation.

17. Whatever may be the feeling among Dissenters relative to the payment of Tithes, it must be admitted on all hands that that portion of the Mosaic constitution which provided for the support of the priesthood was most reasonable. Possessing no land of their own, the tribe of Levi distributed themselves as a special element among the twelve tribes, for whom they officiated as priests, scribes, expounders of the Law, and in a general sense charged themselves with the moral and intellectual well-being of an agricultural population.

In return for such services the Israelites were commanded to contribute tenths, or tithes, of the entire produce of the land, towards the support of the Levites, who were subject to the High Priest, the lineal descendant of Aaron, alone. This arrangement, which obtained among the Jewish people throughout the whole of their Biblical history, was found to be so equitable and reasonable that Christian monarchs were easily persuaded to make a like provision for the support of the priesthood. In this country tithes were claimed under the description of "God's fee" by St. Augustine, Archbishop of Canterbury, but they were given voluntarily until Alfred the Great, encouraged by the pious example of Ethelwulf, his father, who gave by a royal charter the tenth part of his land for the glory of God and his own salvation, imposed them upon all in the course of his brief but useful reign.

18. Everything in the Roman Catholic Church has a meaning. The Altar signifies the table upon which our Lord partook of the Last Supper with His apostles, and also Mount Calvary, upon which He shortly afterwards offered Himself as a living sacrifice for the redemption of mankind. In all ages of the world the word "altar" has had relation to sacrifice; and as the Roman Catholic Church alone offers up sacrifice, it does not obtain and cannot be claimed by any other religious communion. The rubric that the altar must always be of stone is founded upon the circumstance that the Sacrifice of the Mass was originally offered up on the tombs of the martyrs in the Roman catacombs (see 224). The Corporal and Linen Cloths which cover the altar are symbolical of the linen cloths wrapped around the sacred body of our Lord when He was laid in the sepulchre. The Candles lighted on the altar signify the light of faith revealed to the Gentiles.

The Crucifix is ever present in the centre of the altar to remind the worshippers of the Passion and Death of the Redeemer; the Chalice represents the holy sepulchre; and the Patten, the stone which was rolled against the entrance to that abiding-place of the sacred body of Jesus Christ. Quite as much meaning is conveyed by the different Vestments worn by the priest at the altar. The Amice, which, after holding it for a moment over his forehead, he fastens around his neck, represents the piece of linen with which the Jews bandaged the eyes of our Lord before they struck Him with the palms of their hands, saying, "Prophesy unto us, thou Christ, Who is he that smote thee?" The Alb, or long white robe, is symbolical of the garment which Herod put about the body of our Lord when he sent Him back to Pilate. The Maniple, pinned on the left arm, the Stole, which hangs around his neck, and the Girdle, represent the cords with which our Lord was bound when He appeared before Caiaphas, the High l'riest. The Chasuble, or outer vestment, denotes the purple garment put upon Him by the soldiers when they mockingly saluted Him as King of the Jews, and the Cross embroidered upon it, the ignominious instrument of His death, which He bore upon his sacred shoulders up the hill of Calvary.

Even the Colour of the Outer Vestment is significant. RED is used for Feasts of the Holy Ghost (see 7), and of the Martyrs; PURPLE in times of penance and mourning (see 206, 373, 379); WHITE on Feasts of the Blessed Trinity, of our Lord, except during His Passion, of the Virgin, and of the Saints, unless they are Martyrs; BLACK on Good Friday, and in Masses for the Dead; and GREEN on all other occasions, i.e., when there is no special feast.

19. The Burning of Incense in the Roman Catholic Church is an observance borrowed from the Jewish ritual, and having the same signification, viz., that the prayers of the faithful may ascend to heaven "as incense in Thy sight." In addition to numerous allusions to incense burning in the Old Testament, we read in Luke i., relative to the history of Zacharias, that, "According to the custom of the priest's office, his lot was to burn incense when he went into the temple of the Lord. And the whole multitude of the people were praying without at the time of incense. And there appeared unto him an angel of the Lord standing on the right side of the altar of incense." Incense was also burned in the temples of pagan Rome (see 298).

20. In the porch of every Roman Catholic Church will be found a stoup containing Holy 'Water. This is a custom derived from the Jewish ecclesiastical law. We read in the Old Testament that God commanded Moses to make a layer of brass, which was to stand outside the Tabernacle so that the priests might wash before ministering to the Lord. Again: "And the priest shall take holy water in an earthen vessel" (Numbers v.). During the first centuries of Christianity all persons entering the church first washed their hands in the holy-water stoup; now they merely sprinkle themselves with the water as an outward manifestation of their intention to approach the altar with purity and innocence of heart. This holy water is pure water blessed, and containing a little salt. Salt enters largely into the ceremonies of the Church, being regarded as emblematical of incorruptibility. It had also the same signification among the pagans.

21. The object of the universal employment of the Latin Tongue in the Mass is very clearly set forth by Dr. Bagshawe, the author of "The Catechism Illustrated," and other works, as follows: "The Catholic Church is not the Church of one nation, speaking one language. Her children are literally of all nations and tribes and tongues; the languages spoken by them must be numbered by hundreds. It would never do to translate the solemn sacrifice into the language of every barbarous tribe that embraces Christianity; therefore the Church chooses one language.

For instructions, for all prayers in which the people can join, each nation uses its own tongue; but in the Sacraments and the Sacrifice they all employ the one language of the Church. Again, the Church is not of one age, but 'she subsists in all ages.' The languages of men are perpetually changing, and the lapse of a very few hundred years makes them unintelligible. For instance, when St. Augustine came to convert England there was no such language as English, and no such language as French; yet the Mass which he brought to England was almost word for word what it is now. Indeed, we find recorded as an event in the life of Pope Gregory, who sent him to England, that he introduced six words into the Canon of the Mass, which we now find there. Had the Mass been in the language of the country, how many times must it have been altered since then!" To add any words of our own to the foregoing would be an insult to the intelligence of the reader.

22. The Nimbus or "Glory," which in Christian Art surrounds the heads of beatified personages, had a pagan origin. The statues of the gods were always decorated with a circle of stars around the head, expressive of the essence of divine power; and when the Roman emperors assumed all the honours due to divinity, they not only caused themselves to be represented with an aureole in statuary and upon canvas, but they even appeared in public crowned with a circle of rays imitating the glory of the sun. During the first centuries of the Church, the nimbus was studiously avoided in Christian representations, and its subsequent employment was due to accident rather than design. Without a thought of falling into heathenish practices, the clergy from the sixth to the twelfth centuries uniformly attached a broad circular brass plate upon the heads of statues situated in the open air as a slight protection against rain and snow. Such a disc-like aureole will often be met with in Roman Catholic churches at the present day. This suggested a like addition to the heads of such statues as were accommodated under cover, for the sake of ornamentation; so that when at length saintly legends came to be represented upon canvas, the aureole around the head of a beatified personage was never wanting.

23. The object of placing the Altar at the East End of Churches, so that the worshippers shall have their faces towards the east, is generally stated to be as a reminder of Christ, "the Day Spring and the Resurrection." But we can trace this custom much further back than the commencement of the Christian era. The Greeks and other nations of antiquity not only buried their dead with the feet towards the east, but, like the Romans who came after them, they habitually turned their faces eastwards while praying. The true explanation of this must be sought in sun worship, which is the instinctive religion of all primitive races. The Jews turn their faces in the direction of Jerusalem, and the Mohammedans in that of Mecca, as indicated by a framed card containing the word Misrach, or East, among the former, and by a niche in one of the walls among the latter during prayers.

24. It is a curious but undeniable fact that the Papal Tiara or triple crown was, in its original form, nothing more pretentious than the Roman cap of liberty (see 119). All the images of the popes who preceded the reign of the Emperor Constantine appear with the head uncovered; whereas Silvester, whose pontificate was contemporary with him, wears the cap identical with that of the manumitted slaves. Whether it was assumed at the Emperor's order or of his own accord does not transpire; but that it was intended to signify the liberation of the Church from heathenish oppression and the many privileges granted to her by Constantine, there is no room to doubt. This is the conclusion arrived at by all authors who have made the subject their special study. The earliest instance of the coronation of a pope was that of Nicholas I., in the year 858, who added a gold circlet to his cap as the symbol of civil power. The second circlet was added by Boniface VIII. in the following century, as is generally thought, to denote his spiritual power over sovereigns; and the third by Urban V. in the year 1632, as a mere ornament, without any special signification. It should be added that the Pope ordinarily wears a mitre, the tiara being reserved for state occasions. At the same time, whenever he says Mass in public the tiara is always laid on the altar.

25. The Episcopal Mitre, says the French numismatist Pellerin, "is the head-covering worn by the sovereign pontiff of the Hebrews, and was afterwards used, under the name of Cidaris, by the Oriental kings and the pontiffs of paganism with some small difference." It was not transferred to the priesthood by the early Christian Church, but after the eleventh century we meet with it in representations of popes, bishops, abbots, etc. The strict meaning of the mitre and its parts is thus expressed by Pope Boniface III., "The two horns are the two Testaments; the strings, the spirit and the letter." The mitre is worn by all Roman Catholic prelates from the Pope downwards.

26. Strictly speaking, the designation Crosier is applicable only to the official staff of an archbishop, which has a cross at its upper end; that of a bishop terminates in an ornamental curve in allusion to his pastoral functions, and should therefore be styled a Crook. An archbishop is distinguished from a bishop by having the crosier borne before him, while he, like a bishop, carries the crook. Du Cange is perhaps a little too fanciful when, speaking of the crosier, he says, "One part was crooked to draw the meek, the other to punish the contumacious." The Pope does not carry a crosier because, as has been suggested, the curve implies limited jurisdiction.

27. We are informed by Dudley Fosbrooke, in his "Encyclopaedia of Antiquities," that "when Peter first preached at Antioch they shaved his head like a foole." However this may have been, it is certain that the Tonsure was not the distinguishing mark of the priesthood during the first centuries of the Church. At the same time, all Christians were expected to avoid vanity in dressing their hair, and to keep it short; and since cutting the hair close was anciently the universal expression of mourning and penance (see 208), the primitive hermits shaved the whole head as a sign of greater austerity. Imitating their example, many of the fathers and doctors of the Church shaved their heads to a greater or a lesser degree according as their own fancy directed; but it was not until the fourth century that the tonsure was generally imposed upon the priesthood, and even then a further two centuries elapsed before its form, as indicating the rank or order of different priests, was determined. It may not be known that the monks of the Carthusian order shave the whole head to this day.

28. Signet Rings were in ancient times recognized as instruments of authority and investiture, strictly reserved for the use of kings and other privileged persons. The delivery of a signet, therefore, carried with it the power of making use of the royal seal, and implied the creation of a superior office of state. The investiture of the dignitaries of the Roman Catholic Church has always been marked by the delivery of a signet. Pope Gregory IV. ordered it to he worn on the fourth finger of the left hand, but after his death the order was reversed, on the ground that such a symbol of papal authority should be displayed to the best advantage. As the thumb and first two fingers of the right hand are employed for giving the blessing, and in various other ways at the altar, the fourth finger was chosen as the most convenient. On Good Friday the ring is laid aside, because the Church is then in mourning.

29. It is a noteworthy fact that no pope has ever borne the name of Peter. The custom of a newly-elected Pope assuming a New Name was introduced in the year 844 by Peter di Porca, because he thought it would be presumptuous on his part to style himself Peter the Second. He therefore adopted the style of Sergius the Second. With this example before them, all the succeeding popes took a new name in imitation of the Apostle, whose original name Simon was changed to Peter, signifying "a rock," by our Lord Himself.

30. It is commonly but erroneously asserted that Cardinals wear Red Hats, birettas, and habits as a perpetual reminder that they should be prepared to shed their blood for the Church. Red was, during the Middle Ages, the distinctive royal colour throughout Christendom, just as purple was that of the Roman emperors. Only sovereigns and princes were allowed to robe themselves and decorate their residences with material of this colour. Red is still the royal colour of England (see 5). In the audience chamber at the Vatican, the chair of state reserved for kings and princes who in former times sought an audience with the Pope in person is, like the papal throne and the walls of the Pope's private apartments, covered with crimson damask. As "the father of princes and kings, the ruler of the world on earth, the vicar of our Lord Jesus Christ," according to the formula recited at his coronation, the Pope takes rank with sovereigns, and his cardinals bear the style of "Princes of the Church." This is why the latter wear red hats, birettas, and habits. In olden times the Pope's legate took precedence even of royalty.

31. Everyone knows that the Franciscan Friars originally bore the name also of the Grey Friars, from the colour of their habit. But the habit of the Franciscans to-day is brown instead of grey. To explain the reason of this change, it will be necessary to go back to the time when the order was instituted. There was never any rule laid down to determine the colour of the Franciscan habit, further than it should be of some common earth or mould colour, whereby this particular order of mendicant friars might be identified with the poorest of the poor. As a matter of fact, St. Francis d' Assisi had from the very inception of his scheme for founding a new order, been struck with the distinctive garb of the poor shepherds of Umbria.

This consisted of a loose gown of undyed (grey) wool, girdled round the waist with a rope. Now as nothing could have been more becoming to a set of religious devotees who voluntarily embraced poverty, this primitive costume of the Umbrian shepherds was at once adopted by St. Francis and all his followers. The change from grey to brown came about in quite a natural manner. In pursuance of the pious intentions of their founder, the Franciscans never lost sight of the distinguishing garb of the poorest classes of the community in whose midst they dwelt. Towards the close of the fifteenth century the poorest classes of Italy and Spain commenced to wear garments made of dyed materials, in imitation of those better circumstanced than themselves.

Instead of affecting gaudy colours, however, they contented themselves with one of a sombre kind, well in keeping with the coarse nature of the material itself. Brown came thus to be the general colour of the poorer classes, as it was in England during the eighteenth century. Noting this, the Franciscans substituted brown for their original grey habits, and brown it has ever since remained throughout Europe. In Chili, on the other hand, the Franciscan habit is at the present day blue, this being the colour generally adopted by the common people, in contradistinction, as it were, to the better classes who affect brown and grey. With regard to Europe, there is every probability of the Franciscan habit being once more grey. Already the Tertians or members of the Third Order of St. Francis, established for those living in the world, wear, when assembled in the churches, a grey habit closely resembling that of the poor shepherds of Lombardy of the time of St. Francis.

32. The religious order of the Servites was founded in the year 1283 by seven Florentine merchants, who had long been accustomed by mutual agreement to meet in a little chapel of the Annunciation just outside the city walls every day to chant the Ave and evensong in honour of the Blessed Virgin. For this pious practice they became so well known that in coming and going people generally pointed them out as the "servants of the Virgin." At last they determined to forsake the world, and having sold their possessions, each took up his abode in a hut on Monte Senario, a solitary mountain situated about half-a-dozen miles from the city. Their habit was originally white, in token of the purity of the Virgin whose servants they avowed themselves; but on a certain day one of their number had a vision from the Blessed Virgin, who charged them to assume a black habit in remembrance of her maternal sorrows and the death of her Divine Son. Accordingly, they have ever since worn a black habit. In the beautiful Servites' church, in the Fulham Road, a tablet containing the names of the seven founders may be seen.

33. Everyone has heard of the Little Sisters of the Poor, those pious gentlewomen who every day beg the scraps of food left over from the tables of the wealthy and middle classes, for the support of the orphan children and aged folk with which they charge themselves. Their London home is Nazareth House, Hammersmith, but a stone's throw from the busy Broadway. It may not be generally known, however, that the sisters touch no food themselves except that which is returned to them from the tables of the inmates of their institution. The foundress of this noble religious order (Mother Marie Augustine) was originally a cook in the household of an English family at Dinard, in France. For some time she had been in the habit of selling the scraps from the kitchen as perquisites, until it occurred to her that they might be put to a far better use in the interests of the poor. Thereupon she left her situation, and went every day from house to house to collect the broken bits for distribution to the poor. This pious undertaking developed not long afterwards into the formation of a distinct religious order. Mother Marie Augustine died in 1893.

34. A beautiful ceremony is that of a novice Taking the Veil. This is a figurative as well as a literal expression. She has already taken the white veil, and conformed to all the rules of her order, but the moment she assumes the black veil and takes the vows of chastity and obedience, all the beauties of God's fair earth outside the convent garden are excluded from her sight, and relatives and friends are as dead to her. A solemn Mass is said, at which all the inmates of the convent assist; she is arrayed in bridal robes and wreath and veil, and in that character takes her vows, while a plain gold ring is placed on the fourth finger of her lefthand, as the spouse of the Church. linally she is shorn of her tresses, and her bridal robes are exchanged for the sombre religious habit. Her espousal ring, however, she retains during life, and even in her coffin after death.

35. Bell, Book, and Candle were the three instruments employed in the carrying out of a sentence of excommunication. By the ringing of the bell all persons present in the church were apprised of what was about to take place; the sentence was read out of the book, and the lighted candle was then extinguished to denote the spiritual darkness in which the excommunicated person would for the future abide.

NAVAL AND MILITARY

36. Flags and Banners originated in the Ensigns or Standards borne at the head of a barbarian host while marching into battle. When the Goths went to war, they sacrificed their horses to the gods and then cut off their heads, which they bore upon staves and spears as ensigns in the field. After their subversion of the Roman Empire, they bore the stuffed skin of a bear, in imitation of the Romans, who had their Eagle, the royal ensign of the ancient kings of Persia and Babylon, and of the Ptolemies of Egypt. Prior to the Cimbrian war the Romans had as ensigns in addition to the eagle, the wolf, the horse, the boar, and a multitude of other devices; but Marius retained only the eagle as the ensign of a legion, relegating all the rest to the cohorts. Thenceforward each cohort bore its own device emblazoned on the bucklers of its men (see 4).

At the close of the war these bucklers were deposited in tents and magazines, but the cohort that had distinguished itself most in battle claimed the privilege of having its bucklers suspended for a time in the temples. The eagle is borne by the Emperors of Germany and Austria, and the Czar of Russia, who claim descent from the Csars. The Two-headed Eagle was first assumed by the Emperor Constantine, in token of his sovereignty over the Eastern and Western Empires; and next by Charlemagne, for the like reason. The second eagle in the imperial standard of Russia denotes the acquisition of that of Poland. The ancient Phrygians chose for their ensign a sow, the Saxons a horse, the Flemings a bull, and the Mongols a Dragon, which is the device of the Emperor of China at the present time.

The Crescent, the device of the ancient city of Byzantium, now Constantinople, was the symbol of sovereign power among the Greeks and Romans; to-day it is the ensign of the Turks. The Red Flag was the Roman symbol of war, and the accepted token of a call to arms. The White Flag, on the other hand, was the symbol of peace, and as such has from time immemorial been employed to proclaim a truce. In their civic processions the Romans invariably caused banners to be carried inscribed with the letters S.P.Q,R. These were the initials of the sentence, "Senatus populus que Romanus" ("The senate and the people of Rome "). In all representations of Roman life such banners are noticeable.

37. The Royal Standard of Great Britain is a flag emblazoned with the Royal Arms, and totally distinct from the "Union Jack," with which it is often confounded. The Union Jack is a combination of the military ensigns of St. George's Cross for England, St. Andrew's Cross for Scotland, and St. Patrick's Cross for Ireland. This combination was effected at the formal union of the three kingdoms in the year 1801. So much for the first part of the name. The origin of the second has always been a matter of dispute among antiquaries. By many it is thought to be a corruption of Jacobus or Jacques, i.e. James, in allusion to the union of England and Scotland under James I.

Others, again, derive it from the jacque, or surtout of wadded leather strengthened by pieces of plate armour, and charged with the red cross of St. George, as anciently worn by all English soldiers. The latter is by far the more likely derivation. Let us just look into this for a moment. When our soldiers were engaged in the field they wore the Jacque both for protection and distinction. If, however, they had occasion to go on board ship, their Jacques were placed close together along the bulwarks, exactly in the same way as the Romans and the Northmen disposed of their shields on board their galleys. Behind these Jacques, then, they found protection from the arrows of their assailants, while the device upon them proclaimed their nationality. With the exception of the king's own ship of war, which had the royal arms embroidered upon a silken sail, no other indication of the nationality of a vessel was ever afforded.

Now, although we are without any documentary evidence to prove to us in what particular manner these Jacques came to give their name to the flag now flown from the bowsprit of a vessel, it is reasonable to assume that when in course of time the Jacques no longer found a place along the bulwarks, a solitary Jacque was displayed at the bowsprit, perhaps more for the sake of ornament than aught else; and this afterwards gave its name to the flag that superseded it. At all events, it is significant that the flag itself was called the "Jack," and the staff from which it was flown, the "Jackstaff," long before the union of the English and Scottish crowns called the designation "Union Jack" into being.

38. The Tricolour of France, as adopted by the National Assembly at the outbreak of the Revolution of 1789, is red and blue, the colours of the city of Paris, and white, the ancient colour of France, derived from the angel supporters in the royal arms. The selection of the lastnamed colour was due to M. de Lafayette, when it was pointed out that red and blue were already the colours of the House of Orleans. The flags of Italy, Belgium, and the Old North German Confederation were all three formed on the model of the French tricolour.

39. It is not true that the Stars and Stripes composing the American flag were taken from the arms of the Washington family, as seen on a brass in Brington Church, Northamptonshire, where the ancestors of George Washington lie buried. This similarity is merely an interesting coincidence. The flag of the American Union grew quite naturally out of the Union Jack, the same colours being retained from the first. In order to utilize the red field and the white saltire the field was cut up into thirteen stripes of alternate red and white, corresponding to the thirteen states or colonies, while the "constellation," or field of stars, was the outcome of a requirement for the remaining colour, the blue.

Not before the year 1818 was the idea of adding a star for every new state formally adopted, although two new stars had been added to the original thirteen after the admission of Kentucky and Vermont to the Union on May 1st, 1795. The resolution of Congress establishing the Stars and Stripes as the national ensign was dated June 14th, 1777, but it was not officially promulgated until the 3rd of September following.

40. When we see a Broom Tied to the Masthead, we are given to understand that the vessel bearing it is for sale. This singular method of announcing a ship for sale is generally ascribed to the fact that Van Tromp, the celebrated Dutch admiral, displayed a broom at the masthead of his vessel to signify his intention of sweeping the English from their own seas. That he did display a broom in this manner is unquestionable, since, in retaliation, the English admiral tied a horsewhip to his own masthead, expressive of his determination to give the Dutchman a good thrashing. From this horsewhip the flying streamer or Pennant which now distinguishes all English ships of war has been derived.

But the broom was a very old device at the time when Van Tromp made use of it. "The Friscans," writes John Evelyn, "greatly infested the Danes, and those of Flanders, especially under William, the son of John, Count of Holland, and in the time of William the Good, Duke of Normandy. They were the first that bore the broome when, anno 1438, they had cleared the Levantine Seas, and subdued the Genoese." Here we have the origin of the broom at the masthead in the sense in which it was employed by Van Tromp; but the idea of an article sold being literally "swept away," is a little too far-fetched to satisfy us. Let us just see if the symbolism of the broom in connection with a ship for sale cannot be explained on more logical grounds. Looking around us, we find that at the periodical hiring of servants, which now takes place in country towns at Martinmas, but which formerly was intimately associated with what was called a Mop Fair, those servants who have not yet found a new master are distinguished from the rest by wearing twigs or small boughs in their hats.

Now, the ancient Gauls always placed boughs on the heads of their slaves exposed for sale in open market, and from this custom other objects exhibited for sale came to have boughs fastened to them. Moreover, since these boughs invariably consisted of the broom-plant, the constant use of the term "broom" was easily mistaken in the course of time for the name of that article of domestic utility with which we are all familiar. As a matter of fact, the household broom received its name from its bristles being originally made of the broom plant. Hence the designation, "Mop Fair," by which was meant a fair exclusively held for hiring and selling, without any recreative adjuncts.

41. The Fleur-de-Lis on the Mariner's Compass was the cognizance of Charles d'Anjou, the reigning king of Sicily at the time when Flavio Gioja, the Neapolitan navigator, effected his improvements in the instrument first introduced to Europeans by Marco Polo some forty years previously. It was in compliment to this king that Gioja adopted his cognizance as an ornamental indication of the direction due north (see 4).

42. For a very good reason there are always Three Men stationed on a Lighthouse off the British Isles. Formerly there were only two, but on a certain occasion one of the twain shut off from the world in a towering edifice constructed on the stormy rock-bound coast died, and, as frequently happens during the winter, since no boat could come near for some time, the survivor was obliged to keep the dead body of his comrade beside him until it had become putrid-a condition of affairs which almost drove him out of his mind. Had he disposed of the body by casting it into the sea, he would in all probability have been charged with murder, as he well knew. Happily, owing to the measures now adopted, such a terrible experience is not likely to again befall a British lighthouse-keeper.

43. That diverting marine saturnalia which, within living memory, always took place on Crossing the Line, when a vessel had "boys" on board who were passing from the north to the south latitudes, or vice versa, for the first time, was nothing more than a burlesque of certain religious observances of the ancient mariners as they sailed out of the Mediterranean past the "Pillars of Hercules" into the broad Atlantic.

In their time the exploration of that vast watery waste was supposed to be attended with peculiar dangers, which could only be averted by invocations to Neptune, the god of the sea, in much the same manner as they were accustomed to invoke him in their temples on the 3rd of December, the day set apart for a festival in honour of Neptune and Minerva. Consequently, in modern times, Neptune always came on board attended by his wife, to baptize those "youngsters" who could not boast of having crossed the line before. On such occasions the fun ran fast and furious, though the victims doubtless held a different opinion. The introduction of steam navigation has been the chief factor in the abolition of this time-honoured revelry. In the old days, when a sailing vessel would be wind-bound under the equator, some diversion was needed to vary the monotony.

44. The nautical Ahoy, or, as it appears in old MSS., "aoi," was the battle-cry of the Norse and Danish vikings when they rushed their galleys upon the enemy.

45. When sailors on board ship indulge a tuneful " Heave-oh! "or "Oh-yeigh-oh!" to assist their labours at hauling in a cable, or while running round the capstan, they have no idea probably that this was the manner in which the slaves of the ancient world were inspirited to draw heavy burdens. Among the Egyptians, for example, we find from pieces of sculpture which have survived the ravages of Time, how huge blocks of several thousand tons' weight were drawn from the quarries to the places where some architectural work upon a grand scale was in progress, by hundreds of slaves yoked together in different rows by ropes to the sledge. On the top of the stone-block, or if it was a carved figure, seated on the knees, there was a kind of foreman or director, who, when a certain cadence of the song that he sang was reached, clapped his hands together as a signal for them to make a simultaneous forward movement

In the intervals of these exertions, a small body of men poured the contents of grease-jars upon the planks in front of the sledge, while others were in attendance to supply the labourers with water to drink. How true is the saying, itself as old as the time of Solomon, that "there is nothing new under the sun!"

46. Among the ancient Egyptians every soldier was compelled to wear a ring upon which a Scarab, or sacred beetle, was engraved. The object of this was to make him valorous in battle, the scarab being the symbol of regeneration or resurrection (see 432).

47. Some of our Military Observances have an interesting significance. When a Salute is Fired in honour of a person of distinction, it means that the peaceable nature of his visit is so well understood, that there is no need to keep the guns charged. Similarly, when the rank and file "Present Arms," they virtually offer to deliver them into his hands, in recognition of his friendly disposition towards their commander; just as the Lowering of Swords by a mounted regiment expresses a willingness to stand unarmed before the distinguished person to whom honour is being paid. In active warfare, a superior officer on being taken prisoner Surrenders his Sword into the hands of an officer of corresponding rank on the enemy's side in token of submission, and that he places his life entirely at his mercy; but the sword is always as courteously returned to him.

48. The Military Salute, exactly as we now have it, has been in use in the British army from the very commencement of its history. Originally introduced at the tournaments of the Middle Ages, this raising of the hand to a horizontal position over the eyebrows expressed a compliment far more forcible than words.

As soon as the "Queen of Beauty" had enthroned herself on the scene of the day's sports, all the knights who were about to take part in them filed past the dais for her inspection, and as they did so, shielded their eyes from the blinding rays of her loveliness.

49. That interesting military display known as The Trooping of the Colours, was a device on the part of the Duke of Cumberland, when colonel of the First Foot Guards, to reform the uncertain gait of his officers on parade. In his time the hour of parade was six in the morning, and whenever he put in an appearance on the scene, he expressed himself highly scandalized at the unmistakable indications that his officers had not quite recovered from the effects of their previous night's potations. Accordingly, he invented a series of manoeuvres, in the following out of which each officer would be required to walk slowly and separately in a straight line to a given spot, the least unsteadiness or irregularity being instantly detected. Though the necessity for such a test has long since ceased to exist, the parade has been retained as an annual ceremonial on the Queen's birthday.

50. The true origin of the nickname Lobsters, as applied to a British regiment, is given by Lord Clarendon in his "History of the Rebellion." In describing the stirring events of the Civil War during the year 1643, he says: "Sir William Waller received from London a fresh regiment of 500 horse, under the command of Sir Arthur Haslerig, which were so prodigiously armed that they were called by the King's party 'the regiment of lobsters,' because of their bright iron shells with which they were covered, being perfect cuirassiers, and were the first seen so armed on either side." The commonly accepted idea that our soldiers received this nickname on account of their red tunics is incorrect; the more so since a red-coat is popularly denominated A Boiled Lobster, in contradistinction to a policeman, who is A Raw Lobster.

51. The word Lieutenant was originally pronounced as it would be if spelled "lewtenant," until by a printer's error the letter v was unwittingly dropped into the place of the u and suffered to remain. Thus in the "Colonial Records" relating to the State of New York, the word is spelled "lievtenant." It is the function of a lieutenant, conformably with the two words lieu, place, and tenant, holding, to supply the place of a superior officer in his absence.

52. Until recently, all the Hussar regiments of Europe wore the Right Sleeve of the Upper Tunic Hanging loose and useless down the back. This was in imitation of the custom of the original Hussars raised by Corvinus, King of Hungary, in the year 1445, for the national defence; the term Hussar being derived from "houtzar," which in the Magyar tongue means a twentieth, for Corvinus ordered all his people to furnish one man out of every twenty to the service of the State.

The Magyars are justly regarded as the finest body of light horsemen in the world. Strong, hardy fellows, accustomed all their lives to the saddle in charge of large droves of cattle on the broad Hungarian plains, their sinews find active scope for development when, for the excitement's own sake, they employ themselves by capturing and taming wild horses. In this and their ordinary occupation they buckle their mantle under their right arm, so that the latter shall always be free and untrammelled. This, then, is why the right sleeve of the outer tunic of the original and all succeeding Hussar regiments never encased the arm. The oft-told story to the effect that a certain Hussar regiment was ordered out of camp to drive back a surprise party with such haste that the men had not time to get both arms into their coat sleeves, and that in commemoration of their success they allowed the right sleeve to hang loosely down the back ever afterwards, cannot be accepted seriously for one moment. To say the least of it, it is most unlikely that all the men of the regiment, or even the greater part of them, would have been left-handed (see 54).

It may be conveniently added that the Scarlet Cloth Attachment to the Hussar Busby is all that is left of the long narrow bag which the Magyars in battle allowed to fall over their left shoulder as a protection against sword slashes.

53. The Broad Arrow which appears on all Government stores, and which is used also to indicate points whence measurements in connection with the Ordnance Survey have been taken, was the badge or heraldic device of Henry Viscount Sydney, afterwards Earl of Romney, at the time when he held the position of Master-General of the Ordnance Department. It was he himself who originally caused it to be employed as the distinguishing mark for military stores.

54. In time of war it is the custom for military men and officers of state in Turkey to assign the left hand as the Place of Honour instead of the right. This is because the sword-arm is supposed to be always available for defence at such times. In this connection it may be asked, How came Mankind to be right-handed? The answer is very simple. When once it was discovered that the region of the heart was the most vulnerable part of the body, every man engaged in battle directed his blows upon the left breast of his adversary, who was naturally his vis-âvis. Thus, arrows were shot from the right shoulder, and javelins were hurled with the right hand, while maces, battle-axes, and swords were dexterously wielded in opposition to the bucklers, whose primary object was to shield the heart from attack (see 73).

LEGAL AND PARLIAMENTARY

55. The Law Terms are an essentially Christian institution. Among the Romans the dispensation of justice took place daily, except during the Saturnalia, throughout the year; but after the establishment of Christianity this was prohibited by canonical authority, so that the festivals of the Church might be duly observed. Advent and Christmas gave rise to the winter vacation; Lent and Easter the spring; Pentecost the next; and haytime and harvest the long vacation between Midsummer and Michaelmas (see 6). Each term received its denomination from the festival immediately preceding its commencement; thus we have Hilary, Easter, Holy Trinity, and Michaelmas Terms. On one of the days in each term the courts do not sit at all, viz., Candlemas Day, Ascension Day, Midsummer Day, and All Saints' Day. The excuse for these holidays was in Catholic times purely religious; but after the Reformation they were turned to account as Reunion, or "Grand Days," at the Inns of Court. At the Universities these days are styled "Gaudy Days."

56. The Long Vacation in the English Law Courts has remained unaltered since the reign of William the Conqueror. The practical foresight of the Normans carefully adapted the suspension of litigation of all kinds to the season of the vintage, so that witnesses might not be drawn away from their wine-making employment; and the same period was fixed in this country after the Norman Conquest (see 57).

57. An ancient custom lately revived in Catholic legal circles in London is the Messe Rouge, or Mass of the Holy Ghost, at the reassembling of the Law Courts after the Long Vacation. This Mass is attended by all the Roman Catholic judges and barristers, in the church of St. Anselm and Cecilia, otherwise the Sardinian Chapel in Lincoln's Inn Fields. As in France, where it has never been suffered to die out, it is called the "Messe Rouge," from the colour of the vestments worn by the officiating priests. The object of the Mass is to invoke the Divine blessing upon the work about to be undertaken; and it is especially offered up in honour of the Holy Ghost, so that the Spirit may give them wisdom. Masses of the Holy Ghost are all distinguished by the wearing of red vestments, in allusion to the fiery tongues which descended upon the heads of the Apostles on Whit Sunday.

58. The origin of the Lawyer's Wig and Gown is traceable to that period of our history when the study and practice of the law were strictly confined to the clergy. The gown is a relic of the cassock, the bands of those still worn by Catholic priests abroad, and the wig of the coif, or close hood, which when the restriction was removed in the time of the Plantagenets, was adopted by the lay lawyers as a compromise between the clerical tonsure and the capuchin, or hood with a long tail, generally worn by males. At first the coif was made of fine linen, but subsequently the material was changed to silk. The coif is still the distinguishing mark of a sergeant-at-law, though it has dwindled down to an insignificant black patch on the top of his legal wig. The attachment of this patch to his wig by the Lord Chancellor forms part of the ceremonial of the creation of a sergeant-at-law at the present day.

59. The legal terms John Doe and Richard Roe, which previous to the year 1852 appeared in every process of ejectment in place of the names of the real parties, came into existence during the reign of Edward III., in consequence of that provision of Magna Charta which calls for the production of witnesses at every criminal trial. The fictitious names of "John Doe, plaintiff, and Richard Roe, defendant," were therefore inserted because they originally appeared as those of alleged witnesses. By the Act which abolished them on October 24th, 1852, it was ordered that every writ of ejectment should contain the actual names of the persons in possession of the property claimed, as well a a description of the property "with reasonable certainty."

60. The Lawyer's Fee of Six-and-Eightpence was fixed at the time when money was reckoned by pounds, marks, and nobles, instead of pounds, shillings, and pence. A mark was a silver coin, value thirteen and fourpence, but a noble, though worth only six-and-eightpence, or the third of a pound, was composed of the noble metal, gold.

61. Barristers' Bags are of two kinds, red and blue. but the former only may be taken into court; the latter must be left in the robing-room. Here we have another instance of the representative character of red as a royal colour. As a rule only a "silk," or Queen's counsel may carry a red bag.

62. Punctuation is a thing unknown in legal documents, because a "point" may have the effect of giving a sentence a totally different meaning from that intended.

63. An I O U should not be dated, because by dating it, it becomes barred by the Statute of Limitations after six years.

64. It was George the Third who first called the warriors of the law The Devil's Own. When the Temple Company of Militia was paraded before the king he asked the commander what his men were in private life. "They are all lawyers," was the reply. "All lawyers!" cried his majesty. "Then," he added, "we'll call them 'The Devil's Own'." And "The Devil's Own" they have since remained.

65. The notion that the two Sheriffs of the City of London are also conjointly Sheriff of the County of Middlesex is very widespread, but this is a great mistake. It probably originated in the circumstance that a charter of King John, relative to both the City of London and the County of Middlesex, contains the word "Sheriffs," while another of Henry I., which relates to the County of Middlesex only, mentions but one Sheriff.

66. The Judge's Scarlet Robes are worn only in the Criminal Courts, where he represents the Sovereign (see 5, 30). In the Nisi Prius Courts he appears in his judicial undress, or violet gown, because he sits there merely to adjust the law between civilians.

67. Gloves are not worn on the Bench because, like priests, to whom the wearing of gloves is also prohibited, they are to perform their duties "with clean hands."

68. White Gloves are presented by the Sheriffs to the judges in the Criminal Courts at what is called A Maiden Assize, by which is meant an Assize where there are no capital charges; because they are the emblems of innocence. The original signification of the term was an Assize at which no criminal received sentence of death. The same custom obtains in a Magistrate's Court when there are no prisoners to try (see 210).

69. Refusing to plead was formerly punished in a very cruel and barbarous manner. The prisoner who obstinately "stood mute" when placed upon his trial was pressed to death. This was because, theoretically, as long as he refused to plead the civil authority had no power to act at all; and practically, because it is one of the fundamental principles of English Law that every person charged with any crime whatsoever, shall plead in his own defence. Instances are not wanting where a prisoner charged with high treason has preferred death in this manner to pleading, so as to preserve his estates to his children.

70. The State Robes of the English judges, from the Lord Chancellor downwards, are lined with Ermine, because the animal whose fur it is has always been regarded as the emblem of purity.

71. The seat reserved for the Lord Chancellor in the House of Lords is a large sack of wool covered with red cloth, and officially denominated The Woolsack. This is supposed to constantly remind him of the great importance of the woollen manufacture of England.

72. The Speaker of the House of Commons is the first commoner in the land. Though he takes no part in the debates, it is a mistake to imagine that his voice is never heard. As the representative of the Sovereign in the Lower House of Legislature he presides over the debates, puts the question, maintains order, and gives a casting vote when the numbers on both sides are equal; while it is through him alone that the Commons have access to the throne. When two or more members rise to address the House, the rule is for the one who is first observed by the Speaker to be allowed precedence. The necessity for such a rule was first experienced on November 26th, 1640, when several members rose and began to speak at the same time. At last the House decided for Mr. White to speak, and ever afterwards no member attempted to address the House except at the invitation of the Speaker. Hence the expression "To Catch the Speaker's Eye."

73. The Mace, which is of Oriental origin, was anciently a spiked metal club hung at the saddle-bow of a mounted warrior prior to the introduction of swords. Afterwards, when the sword formed the personal armament of every horseman engaged in battle, the use of the mace was restricted to kings, princes, and a few privileged nobles. Finally, the king resigned that weapon into the hands of the valiant knight whom he appointed to be his Champion (see 6), and as the Champion always preceded him on State occasions, the mace that he bore came to be regarded as the insignia of royalty, When the time arrived that the royal champion was no longer needed except at coronations, the mace assumed an ornamental form. The spikes disappeared the article itself was composed of massive silvergilt, and its head was adorned with a crown symbolical of royal dignity.

This is why the mace is borne before the Lord Chancellor and the Speaker, representatives of the Sovereign in the House of Lords and the House of Commons respectively. Likewise the mace lying on the table in front of these high legal functionaries signifies that matters of State are being discussed. In the absence of the Speaker, that is to say, when the House of Commons goes into committee, the mace is put away under the table. As the representative of the Sovereign in the City, the Lord Mayor has his mace-bearer also. So, too, has the Pope.

74. The Episcopalian Bench in the House of Lords had its origin long before the Reformation. It is quite true that in the year 1540 Henry VIII. gave the privilege to all those bishops who acknowledged his supremacy as head of the Church to rank as barons; but we know also that the dissolution of the monasteries deprived twenty-six abbots and two priors of their seats in the Upper House, thus reducing the peerage by one third. As a matter of fact, the abbots and priors of ancient times were placed on the same footing in relation to the Crown as the nobility, by right of the lands that they possessed. Being landowners, they had to render military service, and could be summoned to Parliament.

75. The Ladies' Gallery in the House of Commons does not appear to be a very enviable place to occupy from the male point of view on the opposite side of the House. Why the fair sex should be imprisoned in a cage-like apartment is a mystery to most people; but the explanation is this:--On one occasion, before a separate gallery for lady visitors was provided, one of the daughters of Eve marked her appreciation of an eloquent member's speech by throwing him a bouquet as he sat down. This was considered such an unparliamentary proceeding that the total exclusion of lady visitors was contemplated. Eventually it was decided to prevent a repetition of the occurrence by imprisoning the fair ones behind a "grille." Although the matter has been much agitated of late, unlikely that this detested obstruction will ever be removed.

76. The Light on the Clock Tower of the Houses of Parliament as a signal that the Commons are sitting is an old idea revived; it had its counterpart in the flag always displayed on the roof of a theatre in Shakespeare's day while the play was in progress. The Westminster light is not an electric light at all, as so many people fondly imagine, but old-fashioned gas. As long as the Speaker occupies the chair, it sends its rays across the metropolis; but the moment there is an affirmative response to the Speaker's question, "that the House do now adjourn," it vanishes. This excellent arrangement is due to the fact that a wire runs from the apparatus at the top of the tower to the Speaker's chair, behind which a man is stationed during the debates so as to be ready at any moment to switch off the light.

77. The City Representatives, on the assembling of every new parliament, wear scarlet gowns, and sit close to the right hand of the Speaker. This distinction emphasizes the importance of the Lord Mayor of London, who, as the representative of the Sovereign within the City, wears a scarlet robe of State (see 5, 73, 458).

78. To Move the Previous Question is a parliamentary subterfuge to ignore a question which one side of the House does not like to vote against, but which at the same time it has no desire to pass. As soon as the Speaker rises to put the original question to the vote, some member anticipates him by moving "that this question be now put," and if it is negatived there the matter ends, without any voting at all.

79. To move that a Bill be Read this Day Six Months is the Parliamentary method of burking it, because the House will not be sitting in six months' time.

80. A privy councillor is entitled to be addressed as The Right Honourable, even though he be a commoner. This is because he constitutes one of "The Lords of Her Majesty's Privy Council." The Lord Mayor of London is styled "The Right Honourable" in virtue of his rank as an earl.

81. The Ministerial Whitebait Dinner at Greenwich was instituted by Sir Robert Preston, a Scotch baronet and merchant prince, who some time represented Dover in Parliament. This baronet had what he called a "fishing cottage" at Dagenham Reach, in Essex, to which he was accustomed to repair in the spring with his particular friend, "Old George Rose," Secretary of the Treasury, in order to escape from the cares of his mercantile and parliamentary duties. One day, while these two worthies were enjoying themselves at this place, Mr. Rose threw out a hint that their mutual friend Mr. Pitt would much delight in the comfort of such a snug retreat. The premier was at once invited, and received with the utmost cordiality at the "fishing cottage." On taking his leave he readily accepted an invitation for the following year, Sir Robert engaging to remind him of it at the proper time.

For several years in succession Mr. Pitt, always accompanied by Mr. Rose, enjoyed the hospitality of Sir Robert Preston at Dagenham Reach; but as the distance was great, and railways had not then come into existence, the genial host at length discerned that his coming and going could not fail to be somewhat inconvenient to the First Minister of the Crown. He therefore proposed that they should in future dine together at some place nearer London. Greenwich was mentioned as a convenient salle a manger, and this was agreed to. At their first meeting, however, the party was changed from a trio to a quartet, Mr. Pitt having requested that he might be allowed to introduce Lord Camden. It was not long before a fourth guest --Mr. Long, subsequently Lord Farnborough--was added to the little party. These were still the guests of Sir Robert Preston; but one by one other notables were invited, and at last Lord Camden proposed that as they were dining at a tavern, Sir Robert should be relieved of the expense. It was therefore agreed that each diner should bear his individual share of the cost, and on this plan the meetings were annually held until the death of Mr. Pitt. Sir Robert Preston was in the following year called upon to invite the several guests, the list of whom already included most of the cabinet ministers. It was then that the time of meeting was transferred to the end of the session. When Sir Robert died, the "fish dinner," as it was called, survived, and Lord Farnborough undertook to summon the guests from the list furnished to him by the private secretary of the late baronet, who had been in the habit of sending out the invitations privately. "No doubt eating and drinking," writes the author of a long and interesting letter on this subject in the "Times" for 1861, and of which the foregoing is an abstract, "are good for digestion, and a good digestion makes men calm and clearheaded, and calmness and a clear head promote logical reasoning, and logical reasoning aids the counsels of the nation, and reipublicae consilio the nation goes on to glory.

So I suppose in one way or another the 'Ministerial Whitebait Dinner' conduces to the grandeur and prosperity of our beloved country." It may conveniently be added that Whitebait owes its name to its silvery whiteness, and the circumstance that it was at one time employed exclusively for baiting crab and lobster pots.

82. The custom of Wearing the Hat in Parliament is alluded to in an old work entitled, "Rules of Proceeding, etc., of the House of Commons." It is there stated that when a member speaks he must stand up in his place with his head uncovered, and address his remarks to the Speaker and not to a particular member. This presumes the existence of the custom of wearing the hat when not actually engaged in debate. There are reasons why a member should always have his hat close at hand, though he may not care to keep it on his head. As often as he hears his name mentioned in the speech of another member he is expected to raise his hat deferentially, as an acknowledgment, and if at the moment he should happen to have it in his hand, or lying in his lap, he must instantly pop it on his head so as to be able to raise it with due respect.

Sometimes, in consequence of a slight irregularity, a point of order arises, and if, at such a time, a member wishes to address the Chair, he must speak without rising from his seat, and with his hat on. Again, at a particular stage in private business, when the royal assent has to be intimated by a privy councillor, this is done by raising his hat. The process of securing seats in the House, at the opening of the session, or of a new parliament by placing hats on them is familiar to every newspaper reader. On such an occasion a member generally comes down to the House an hour or two before the sitting with an extra hat, and sometimes an armful of hats, which he places on behalf of dilatory friends who might otherwise find on arriving all the best seats occupied.

83. When a Member of Parliament wishes to resign his seat, he applies for the Stewardship of The Chiltern Hundreds. Technically, he cannot resign, but the acceptance of an office under the Crown debars him from further representing his constituency. The Chiltern Hundreds are a range of chalk hills that separate Bedfordshire and Hertfordshire, and, traversing the middle of Buckinghamshire, extend as far as Henley in Oxfordshire. They comprise the Hundreds of Burnham, Desborough, and Stoke. Being at one time much infested with robbers, an officer of the Crown was appointed to protect them; but the office is now a sinecure, with a nominal pay. It is granted as a matter of course to a Member of Parliament who resigns his seat, and must be held by him until some other member who wishes to retire applies for it.

CIVIC AND SOCIAL

84. Old London Bridge was built upon Woolpacks, as was said, for the following reason. The bridge was commenced by one Peter, a priest of St. Mary Cole-church, which, previous to the Great Fire, stood on the north side of the Poultry. When the works were stopped for want of funds, Henry II. generously came to the rescue by imposing a tax upon his subjects' wool. This gave rise to the vulgar saying that Peter of the Poultry had reared the arches of his bridge upon woolpacks.

85. The so-called Griffin on the Temple Bar Memorial is not a griffin at all, but a dragon, which forms one of the supporters of the arms of the City of London, viz., the Cross of St. George, containing in the first quarter the sword of St. Paul (see 290). It will be noticed that the monster supports the City arms with one of its fore-paws. Possibly, had more space been available, both supporters would have been requisitioned. Let it be mentioned incidentally that the City's crest is a dragon's wing expanded to the sinister, and ensigned with St. George's Cross.

86. The Dragon on the Spire of Bow Church, Cheapside, has not hitherto been accounted for. Nevertheless, since we know that the church was dedicated to the Virgin, it is, or should be, by no means difficult to comprehend its signification. In all examples of Christian Art, the Serpent which, as God foretold to the Mother of Mankind, would one day be crushed by a woman, appears in the form of a dragon (see 384).

87. A Grasshopper was formerly the usual grocer's shop-sign, in imitation of the family crest of Sir Thomas Gresharn, which adorned his shop-front at the time when he resided in Lombard Street. The grasshopper on the Royal Exchange is believed to be one that was saved from the Great Fire of London, and also that of 1838, in which the second Exchange was consumed.

88. The subject of Tavern Signs has been so fully discussed in our "Names and their Meaning," that there is no need to revert to it here. Let it suffice to state that both shop and tavern signs were a necessity in the days when very few people could read, and when, consequently, it would have been useless for a tradesman to paint his name over his shop-front. Yet, while tavern signs had a purely heraldic significance, shop signs always had an intimate relation to the trades they advertised.

89. The Pawnbroker's Three Brass Balls were the arms of the Medicis of Florence, whose agent was the first to lend money on pledges in this country. As a distinguishing shop-sign, he employed the family arms, but subsequently, when the Jews of Lombardy flocked over to England and set up in the same kind of business, the sign was extensively copied. Roscoe, in his "Life of Lorenzo de Medici," published in 1796, attributes the origin of the family arms to an exploit of Averardo de Medici, one of the commanders of Charlemagne, who slew a famous giant named Mugello, and bore off his club, that had three iron balls sunk into it, as a trophy. Others, again, contend that the three brass balls were simply gilded pills of large size. That the Medicis were Florentine physicians is well known; indeed, it is sufficiently established by their family name. It should be added, however, that the balls were originally blue; the brass balls did not make their appearance until some seventy years ago. Of course, there is such a thing as a blue pill, and the practice of our Continental neighbours nowadays is to gild their pills. The public money-lending establishments of France and Italy are styled Monts de Piete, from their sign, which consists of three mounds of earth, suggested by the three balls, surmounted by a pieta, a figure of Christ (see 282).

90. The Barber's Pole is a relic of the time when, under the style of barber-surgeons, the barbers of this country were also surgeons. It was customary then for the pole to be tightly grasped by a patient during the process of blood-letting, in order to make his veins swell, and the blood to flow freely. As the pole very soon became bloodstained it was painted a bright red, and, when not in use, hung outside the shop-door as a sign, swathed spirally with a narrow white linen band, in allusion to the bandage used for tying up the bleeding arm. In course of time it occurred to some sharp-witted member of the fraternity to have a dummy pole, painted with red and white stripes, permanently on view outside, and to keep the real one inside. From this time forward the barber's pole became a fixture. The gilt knob at the end of the pole is supposed to represent the brass dish or basin, with a notch-like cavity on one side of it to fit the throat, and which was employed to catch the lather when a customer was being shaved. The basin itself was generally suspended from the knob at the pole-end. To bring this basin to the ground by pelting at it from a distance was considered fine sport by the holiday-making school-boys on Shrove Tuesday a generation or two back (see 426).

91. The origin of the Black Doll, which not so very long ago was the recognized sign of a marine-store dealer, is not without interest. In the days when Indian and Chinese curiosity shops were common in all parts of London, such establishments always called attention to the character of their wares by means of a black doll or joss--a species of Chinese idol--exhibited outside. But there came a time when these shops dwindled down to an insignificant few; whereupon the dealers in cast-off clothing, who shipped large quantities of goods to Africa and other uncivilized lands, acquired the black dolls as an advertisement for their places of business, taking care to dress them up as gaily as they could in order to attract notice from a distance. By-and-by, these exporters of clothing degenerated into mere rag-and-bottle merchants, though the black doll, bereft of its finery, continued to be suspended over the door. It would, we fear, require an expenditure of much time and shoe-leather to discover such a sign in the byways of London in the present year of grace.

92. The Chemist's Coloured Globes are modern substitutes for the retorts and jars containing their various drugs and mixtures, of the apothecaries and alchemists of a bygone day. The Doctor's Red Lamp had a similar origin. After the Barber-Surgeons' Company (see 90) was dissolved, in the year 1745, the practice of surgery was placed in the hands of properly qualified surgeons, who set up a red globe--painfully suggestive of bleeding--outside their houses as a sign. As for the apothecaries, their invariable shop-sign was a Wooden Phoenix, owing to the association of the famous bird with alchemy. After the great Swiss alchemist Paracelsus wrote about it in the sixteenth century, the alchemists one and all employed it as the symbol of their vocation. The Pestle and Mortar is still occasionally met with as a chemist's shop-sign. The pestle was originally the shankbone of a sheep.

93. The Highlander at the Tobacconist's Shop Door is still to be met with in the course of a day's walk, but the snuff-box from which he is supposed to be helping himself; does not always meet one's gaze. Why a Highlander should have been selected for this monotonous sentry duty can only be explained by the circumstance that our Scottish neighbours are notoriously fond of a pinch of snuff, and that a great deal of this article is nowadays made across the Border. Another tobacconists' sign